Psychological Factors of Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood has two opposing descriptions one is a time of heighten responsibility, roles, and limited satisfaction and the other is a time of peaks in social relationships, physical health, and work (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.583). Middle adulthood is also defined as ages 40-64. Middle adulthood is often perceived in a negative way; which leads to the midlife crisis perception. There are also opposing views about the existence of a midlife crisis. According to Freund and Ritter (2011), 92% of middle adults believe there is a midlife crisis and 71% of middle adults know someone who has experienced a midlife crisis (p.583).
So what is a midlife crisis?
One interpretation of midlife crisis is a personality change where an individual loses a sense of identity, values, roles, and association to groups (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.584). Middle adulthood is often perceived as a developmental stage that is a rigid time to accomplish goals; which is age specific. In other words, this strict view of middle adulthood does not allow flexibility or periods of instability during middle adulthood because developmentally all goals should have been achieved. A strict interpretation of middle adulthood development is what causes a midlife crisis because the normal changes in middle adulthood are perceived as setbacks, rather than low periods of life that are expected to occur during a lifespan.
According to researchers middle adulthood explicitly focuses on gains, losses, and unaccomplished goals. During re-evaluation of life’s accomplishments, one in middle adulthood may experience depression and anxiety because of unmet goals (Freund & Ritter, 2009, p.584). Marriage and work are common evaluations during middle adulthood (Freund & Ritter, 2009, p.584). Such transitions are precursors to midlife crisis if current relationships and professional situations are contrary to past personal expectations. According to Freund and Ritter (2009), comparing the past to present can be painful to middle aged adults and cause cynicism towards life.
Personality psychologist do not believe in the existence of a midlife crisis, but instead believe that middle adulthood is a time of stability and turmoil during middle aged transitions is caused by neuroticism (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p. 585). According to Lachman (2001), adults who are neurotic are more likely to experience a crisis because of long-term difficulties adjusting to transitions presented from adolescence and young adulthood (p.284). Neuroticism is defined as a propensity to be moody, anxious, hostile, self-conscious, and vulnerable (Hutchison, 2011, p. 329). Resulting in difficulties experienced during transitions also presented from adolescence and young adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.284). According to Willis and Martin (2005), low neuroticism and high conscientiousness are associated with high psychological well-being (p.161).
Another criticism of midlife crisis is goals that are set during adolescence and young adulthood are later appraised during middle adulthood and become determinants of life satisfaction in midlife (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). People unconsciously allow societal expectations and the age-related developmental stage to dictate their personal goals. However, abandoning old goals to establish new goals may cause the middle aged adult to be judged as an underachiever (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.588). Nonetheless, personal goal setting is essential in being happy at any age (Freund and Ritter, 2011, p.586).
Personality and Self
Common conflicting views arise about personality and self in midlife. The most common varying views on middle adulthood are midlife turmoil and adaptation to new life. Another perspective of middle adulthood is a period of stability in personality (Lachman, 2001, p. 279). More evidence has proven that individual differences in personality and self are determinants in the nature and experiences of middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p. 279). Research on personality in middle adulthood includes multiple perspectives including trait models, stage, models, and subjective perceptions of personality change (Lachman, 2001, p.283-298). Self-reflection at middle adulthood is based on sense of control and well-being (Lachman, 2001, p.299-303).
Trait Models
A study conducted by Pulkkinen, Kokko, and Rantanen (2012), hypothesized that childhood temperaments are linked to middle adult personality traits seen in socioemotional behavior. The study also examined gender differences in early personality traits by testing for extraversion, negative affect, and effort control among preschoolers, elementary students, and middle aged adults. The test was a longitudinal study that continuously followed the socioemotional characteristics in childhood to middle adulthood for 35 years. The results showed that childhood socioemotional traits to middle adulthood personality traits are higher in males than females and these traits are linked to early childhood temperaments. One result indicated that boys who displayed aggression showed hostile behavior as adults, but specific observations were not shown among female participants.
Studies report opposing views on whether there is a particular age when personality traits should be reached. Several trait theorists have illustrated through longitudinal studies that changes in trait occur during middle adulthood. Conversely, other trait theorists have indicated that personality traits should be reached by age 30 (Lachman, 2001, p.284). One study compared young, middle, and older adults based on the big five traits and the findings suggested agreeableness showed increases with age. Conscientiousness significantly increased in middle age, and openness and neuroticism decreased in age (Lachman, 2001, p.286).
Stage model
Stage model approach differs from trait model in identifying change throughout middle adulthood. If a stage is not well developed, then the following stage may be disrupted. The stage model for personality in middle adulthood is explained through Erikson’s eight stages of development. However, as explained earlier a rigid definition of middle adulthood interferes with adjustment to changes endured during midlife. Therefore, people struggle to cope with such transitions referred to as midlife crisis.
The Self at Middle Adulthood
Interpretation of self-control changes during middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Sense of control is associated to health and well-being in middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Middle age adults who feel responsible of outcomes in their lives indulge in healthier-proactive behaviors. Moreover, balancing sense of control in middle adulthood is an important psychosocial source in preventive and ongoing behaviors (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Sense of control is related to well-being that leads to sense of satisfaction and positive changes (Lachman, 2001, p.302).
How is living well defined in middle adulthood?
According to Lachman (2001), living well in middle adulthood is having good physical and psychological health, and a sense of social responsibility (p.303). Well-being in middle adulthood is categorized among six categories including self-acceptance, positive relationships, autonomy, and mastery over challenges. Like Lachman, Willis and Martin (2005), stated that psychological well-being is conceptualized as life satisfaction, purpose, mastery and future expectations (p.147). As previously stated, setting personal goals that are not derived from the strict definition of middle adulthood also helps the psychological well-being and satisfaction with life (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). However, many middle aged adults fear setting new goals and become stagnant; which is explained in Erikson’s stage of development (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). The strict definition of middle adulthood may hinder setting new goals and experiencing new opportunities during middle adulthood. Middle adults may view themselves as too mature or believe they no longer have the opportunity to do something new because the notion is they should have reached stability (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.5.88).
Emotional Development in middle adulthood
Emotional development among middle adults is conceptualized in two ways. Emotional development among this cohort can be viewed as a course of development across a lifespan or based on emotional functioning that result from experienced events; such as empty nest and death of a parent (Lachman, 2001, p.303). Different theories explain emotional development among middle adults as a lifespan trajectory. Selectivity and optimization theorists believe that middle aged adults avoid negative situations and chose emotionally and intellectually stimulating relationships. According to Lachman, one factor that explains emotional regulation is cognitive complexities (p.328, 2001). Another factor is a positive view by maintaining a balance of positive and negative aspects of self that creates an emotional balance (Lachman, 2001, p.328). The cognitive complexities of emotional regulation consist of objectivity, flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty (Lachman, 2001, p.328).
So how do middle adults maintain gains? How do middle adults prevent losses?
Adaptation and Resilience
Erkison’s acceptance of life’s limits and achieving ego integrity are key challenges of middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.350).However, according to stage theories of adult personality development, it is the period of middle adulthood that acknowledges if satisfaction in life is met (Lachman, 2001, p.350). Since some researchers question the existence of midlife crisis, coping strategies for adaptation and resilience are recommended. One adaptive strategy is reference reframing; which is changing the reaction to losses as being less severe (Lachman, 2001, p.373). Reframing how one interprets loss emotionally protects the individual from impact of unhealthy response to losses. Reframing is adaptive because the individual is not trying to undo losses or have an unrealistic view of circumstances. Another beneficial adaptive strategy is age-normative shift. Age-normative shift is changing the normal age to meet life goals and transitions (Lachman, 2001, p.379). Distorted sense of control, self-efficacy, well-being, in addition, to unmet expected deadlines in middle adulthood are contributors to losses and midlife crisis. Regret and psychological turning points are connected to limits of control and not accomplishing a goal based on perceived deadlines (Lachman, 2001, p.379). However, age-normative shifts allow individuals to redirect efforts to personal pursuits and emotionally balance their loss of control (Lachman, 2001, p.285).
Conclusion
Initial psychological and emotional health of a middle adulthood may have been developed in previous stages since human development is a continuum. Furthermore, there are apparent regressions during middle adulthood because of its stage in lifespan. However, new goals, accomplishments, and adaptive coping strategies to changes can be made during middle adulthood. Middle adulthood is a time of changes and substantial events that require more sense of self in order to maintain good psychological health. Personal expectations or societal demands may harbor and deter self-identity in middle adulthood. Moreover, middle adulthood is a time to reflect on accomplishments and reframe when and how future endeavors and transitions will be accomplished.
References
Freund, A. M., & Ritter, J. O. (2009). Midlife crisis: A debate. Gerontology, 55(5), 582-591.
Hutchinson, E.D. (2011). Dimensions of Human Behavior. United States: Sage Publications
Lachman, M. E. (2001). Handbook of Midlife Development. United States: John Wiley & Sons
Pulkkinen, L., Kokko, K., & Rantanen, J. (2012). Paths from socioemotional behavior in middle childhood to personality in middle adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1283-1291.
Weiss, D., & Freund, A. M. (2012). Still young at heart: negative age-related information motivates distancing from same-aged people. Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 173-180.
Willis, S.L. & Martin, M. (2005). Middle Adulthood: A lifespan Perspective. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications
Middle adulthood has two opposing descriptions one is a time of heighten responsibility, roles, and limited satisfaction and the other is a time of peaks in social relationships, physical health, and work (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.583). Middle adulthood is also defined as ages 40-64. Middle adulthood is often perceived in a negative way; which leads to the midlife crisis perception. There are also opposing views about the existence of a midlife crisis. According to Freund and Ritter (2011), 92% of middle adults believe there is a midlife crisis and 71% of middle adults know someone who has experienced a midlife crisis (p.583).
So what is a midlife crisis?
One interpretation of midlife crisis is a personality change where an individual loses a sense of identity, values, roles, and association to groups (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.584). Middle adulthood is often perceived as a developmental stage that is a rigid time to accomplish goals; which is age specific. In other words, this strict view of middle adulthood does not allow flexibility or periods of instability during middle adulthood because developmentally all goals should have been achieved. A strict interpretation of middle adulthood development is what causes a midlife crisis because the normal changes in middle adulthood are perceived as setbacks, rather than low periods of life that are expected to occur during a lifespan.
According to researchers middle adulthood explicitly focuses on gains, losses, and unaccomplished goals. During re-evaluation of life’s accomplishments, one in middle adulthood may experience depression and anxiety because of unmet goals (Freund & Ritter, 2009, p.584). Marriage and work are common evaluations during middle adulthood (Freund & Ritter, 2009, p.584). Such transitions are precursors to midlife crisis if current relationships and professional situations are contrary to past personal expectations. According to Freund and Ritter (2009), comparing the past to present can be painful to middle aged adults and cause cynicism towards life.
Personality psychologist do not believe in the existence of a midlife crisis, but instead believe that middle adulthood is a time of stability and turmoil during middle aged transitions is caused by neuroticism (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p. 585). According to Lachman (2001), adults who are neurotic are more likely to experience a crisis because of long-term difficulties adjusting to transitions presented from adolescence and young adulthood (p.284). Neuroticism is defined as a propensity to be moody, anxious, hostile, self-conscious, and vulnerable (Hutchison, 2011, p. 329). Resulting in difficulties experienced during transitions also presented from adolescence and young adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.284). According to Willis and Martin (2005), low neuroticism and high conscientiousness are associated with high psychological well-being (p.161).
Another criticism of midlife crisis is goals that are set during adolescence and young adulthood are later appraised during middle adulthood and become determinants of life satisfaction in midlife (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). People unconsciously allow societal expectations and the age-related developmental stage to dictate their personal goals. However, abandoning old goals to establish new goals may cause the middle aged adult to be judged as an underachiever (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.588). Nonetheless, personal goal setting is essential in being happy at any age (Freund and Ritter, 2011, p.586).
Personality and Self
Common conflicting views arise about personality and self in midlife. The most common varying views on middle adulthood are midlife turmoil and adaptation to new life. Another perspective of middle adulthood is a period of stability in personality (Lachman, 2001, p. 279). More evidence has proven that individual differences in personality and self are determinants in the nature and experiences of middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p. 279). Research on personality in middle adulthood includes multiple perspectives including trait models, stage, models, and subjective perceptions of personality change (Lachman, 2001, p.283-298). Self-reflection at middle adulthood is based on sense of control and well-being (Lachman, 2001, p.299-303).
Trait Models
A study conducted by Pulkkinen, Kokko, and Rantanen (2012), hypothesized that childhood temperaments are linked to middle adult personality traits seen in socioemotional behavior. The study also examined gender differences in early personality traits by testing for extraversion, negative affect, and effort control among preschoolers, elementary students, and middle aged adults. The test was a longitudinal study that continuously followed the socioemotional characteristics in childhood to middle adulthood for 35 years. The results showed that childhood socioemotional traits to middle adulthood personality traits are higher in males than females and these traits are linked to early childhood temperaments. One result indicated that boys who displayed aggression showed hostile behavior as adults, but specific observations were not shown among female participants.
Studies report opposing views on whether there is a particular age when personality traits should be reached. Several trait theorists have illustrated through longitudinal studies that changes in trait occur during middle adulthood. Conversely, other trait theorists have indicated that personality traits should be reached by age 30 (Lachman, 2001, p.284). One study compared young, middle, and older adults based on the big five traits and the findings suggested agreeableness showed increases with age. Conscientiousness significantly increased in middle age, and openness and neuroticism decreased in age (Lachman, 2001, p.286).
Stage model
Stage model approach differs from trait model in identifying change throughout middle adulthood. If a stage is not well developed, then the following stage may be disrupted. The stage model for personality in middle adulthood is explained through Erikson’s eight stages of development. However, as explained earlier a rigid definition of middle adulthood interferes with adjustment to changes endured during midlife. Therefore, people struggle to cope with such transitions referred to as midlife crisis.
The Self at Middle Adulthood
Interpretation of self-control changes during middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Sense of control is associated to health and well-being in middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Middle age adults who feel responsible of outcomes in their lives indulge in healthier-proactive behaviors. Moreover, balancing sense of control in middle adulthood is an important psychosocial source in preventive and ongoing behaviors (Lachman, 2001, p.302). Sense of control is related to well-being that leads to sense of satisfaction and positive changes (Lachman, 2001, p.302).
How is living well defined in middle adulthood?
According to Lachman (2001), living well in middle adulthood is having good physical and psychological health, and a sense of social responsibility (p.303). Well-being in middle adulthood is categorized among six categories including self-acceptance, positive relationships, autonomy, and mastery over challenges. Like Lachman, Willis and Martin (2005), stated that psychological well-being is conceptualized as life satisfaction, purpose, mastery and future expectations (p.147). As previously stated, setting personal goals that are not derived from the strict definition of middle adulthood also helps the psychological well-being and satisfaction with life (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). However, many middle aged adults fear setting new goals and become stagnant; which is explained in Erikson’s stage of development (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.586). The strict definition of middle adulthood may hinder setting new goals and experiencing new opportunities during middle adulthood. Middle adults may view themselves as too mature or believe they no longer have the opportunity to do something new because the notion is they should have reached stability (Freund & Ritter, 2011, p.5.88).
Emotional Development in middle adulthood
Emotional development among middle adults is conceptualized in two ways. Emotional development among this cohort can be viewed as a course of development across a lifespan or based on emotional functioning that result from experienced events; such as empty nest and death of a parent (Lachman, 2001, p.303). Different theories explain emotional development among middle adults as a lifespan trajectory. Selectivity and optimization theorists believe that middle aged adults avoid negative situations and chose emotionally and intellectually stimulating relationships. According to Lachman, one factor that explains emotional regulation is cognitive complexities (p.328, 2001). Another factor is a positive view by maintaining a balance of positive and negative aspects of self that creates an emotional balance (Lachman, 2001, p.328). The cognitive complexities of emotional regulation consist of objectivity, flexibility, and tolerance of uncertainty (Lachman, 2001, p.328).
So how do middle adults maintain gains? How do middle adults prevent losses?
Adaptation and Resilience
Erkison’s acceptance of life’s limits and achieving ego integrity are key challenges of middle adulthood (Lachman, 2001, p.350).However, according to stage theories of adult personality development, it is the period of middle adulthood that acknowledges if satisfaction in life is met (Lachman, 2001, p.350). Since some researchers question the existence of midlife crisis, coping strategies for adaptation and resilience are recommended. One adaptive strategy is reference reframing; which is changing the reaction to losses as being less severe (Lachman, 2001, p.373). Reframing how one interprets loss emotionally protects the individual from impact of unhealthy response to losses. Reframing is adaptive because the individual is not trying to undo losses or have an unrealistic view of circumstances. Another beneficial adaptive strategy is age-normative shift. Age-normative shift is changing the normal age to meet life goals and transitions (Lachman, 2001, p.379). Distorted sense of control, self-efficacy, well-being, in addition, to unmet expected deadlines in middle adulthood are contributors to losses and midlife crisis. Regret and psychological turning points are connected to limits of control and not accomplishing a goal based on perceived deadlines (Lachman, 2001, p.379). However, age-normative shifts allow individuals to redirect efforts to personal pursuits and emotionally balance their loss of control (Lachman, 2001, p.285).
Conclusion
Initial psychological and emotional health of a middle adulthood may have been developed in previous stages since human development is a continuum. Furthermore, there are apparent regressions during middle adulthood because of its stage in lifespan. However, new goals, accomplishments, and adaptive coping strategies to changes can be made during middle adulthood. Middle adulthood is a time of changes and substantial events that require more sense of self in order to maintain good psychological health. Personal expectations or societal demands may harbor and deter self-identity in middle adulthood. Moreover, middle adulthood is a time to reflect on accomplishments and reframe when and how future endeavors and transitions will be accomplished.
References
Freund, A. M., & Ritter, J. O. (2009). Midlife crisis: A debate. Gerontology, 55(5), 582-591.
Hutchinson, E.D. (2011). Dimensions of Human Behavior. United States: Sage Publications
Lachman, M. E. (2001). Handbook of Midlife Development. United States: John Wiley & Sons
Pulkkinen, L., Kokko, K., & Rantanen, J. (2012). Paths from socioemotional behavior in middle childhood to personality in middle adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1283-1291.
Weiss, D., & Freund, A. M. (2012). Still young at heart: negative age-related information motivates distancing from same-aged people. Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 173-180.
Willis, S.L. & Martin, M. (2005). Middle Adulthood: A lifespan Perspective. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications